Πίστις (Pistis)

There are several words in my Twitter “Day Texts” which are different from what you might find in other translations. This is because, while I make no special claims about any of my translations, I do believe I have good reasons for moving away from some of the more commonly found or accepted renderings for pistis (the Greek word often translated “faith,” “belief,” or “trust),” to what I have used in certain of my Day Texts, namely (for pistis), “belief(s) based on good reasons.”

In explaining why I chose to use this expression rather than one or more of most common single-word translations for pistis (several of which are noted above), consider the Day Text for May 14, 2010, from James 2:14-17 (with underlining added, though bracketed comments are original to the Day Text):

My brothers, what good can come from someone who may say he or she believes for good reasons, but does not have the works to show it? Beliefs based on good reasons [or, ‘faith,’ ‘trust,’ which must be based on good reasons] will not save a person. If your brother or your sister are in need of clothing and have too little food for each day, and if a certain one of you might say, “Go your way in peace, be warm, and eat until you are satisfied,” but you do not give them what they need to be safe and satisfied, what is the point? In the same way, belief based on good reasons [or, ‘faith’], if it does not have works, then it is dead to itself.

The underlined portions of the above are my renderings of three separate occurrences of the one Greek word, pistis. As I noted at the beginning of this Blog, pistis is often translated correctly into English as “faith,” “belief,” and “trust.” Though all of these words accurately represent how pistis can be translated according to its use in the New Testament and in other early Greek literature, consider the following meanings for pistis as given in A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd edition, edited and revised by Frederick W. Danker (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2000), pages 818-820:

1. that which evokes trust and faith

a.      the state of being someone in whom confidence can be placed, faithfulness, reliability, fidelity, commitment ...

b.      a solemn promise to be faithful and loyal, assurance, oath, troth ...

c.       a token offered as a guarantee of someth. promised, proof, pledge ...

2. state of believing on the basis of the reliability of the one trusted, trust, confidence, 
    faith in the active sense=‘believing’,

a.     God: ... faith, trust, confidence in God 

b.   Christ - a. of belief and trust in the Lord’s help in physical and spiritual distress;

3. that which is believed, body of faith/belief/teaching

It is clear from the above, from the uses of pistis in James 2:14-17 (quoted above), and from numerous other uses of pistis in the New Testament that pistis is one word but which may require more than one corresponding word to fully or even fairly express the meaning in another language, such as English. With the above definitions in mind, let us go back to James 2:14-17 (my above quoted, May 14, 2010, Day Text) and look at the two occurrences of pistis in verse 14, as well as the final occurrence of pistis in verse 17.

In James 2:14 pistis is used, but it is set apart from “works” to show that pistis itself “will not save a person,” that is, if it “does not have the works to show it.” Then in verses 15-16 James gives an example of a person with pistis, who has the belief or trust that the person who is in need will receive what he or she needs, but who does not actually give the person “what they need to be safe and satisfied, [so] what is the point?” James concludes the matter in verse 17, noting that pistis must have “works” to reveal this “faith” or “trust,” otherwise it does not actually exist as a ‘living,’ ‘saving’ pistis. Without “works,” pistis is “dead.”

But why “beliefs based on good reasons”? Why not simply “belief(s),” “trust,” or “faith”?

Consider now the uses not only of the noun pistis, but also of the related verb pisteu’o, in verses 18-20 of James Chapter 2, according to my own translation which I will explain below, in furtherance of this question involving the meaning and translation of pistis:

But someone will say, “You have beliefs based on good reasons [or, ‘faith’], and I have works. Show me your beliefs based on good reasons apart from works, and I will show you my beliefs based on good reasons by means of my works.” You believe for good reasons that God is one, so you are well prepared. But evil spirits [or, ‘demons’] believe for good reasons and yet they tremble with fear. But are you willing to recognize, O foolish man, that beliefs based on good reasons [or, ‘faith’] apart from works is useless? [Taken from the Elihu Books’ Twitter “Day Text” translation for May 27, 2010.]

Clearly, the pistis of the “evil spirits”/“demons” is not a “trust,” or a “faith,” such as those who are not “evil” by intent may have in “God” as “one,” in as much as to “tremble with fear” is a reaction or a condition resulting from the lack of “works” which (should) correspond to the “belief”/“faith” of even “evil spirits,” or “demons,” namely, that “God is one” (at least according to James). This is consistent with what else the Bible teaches, for “spirits” and “angels” according to the Bible know their Father.—Hebrews 1:10; 12:9; 1 Peter 3:19-20; 1:6; compare Mark 3:11; 5:12.

However, there are no discernible, corresponding “works” associated with the pistis of “evil spirits” (thus, they are said to be “evil”), though it is unclear if such ones would/could be moved to, in fact, make their belief consistent with the appropriate, corresponding “works” and thereby show more their belief for good reasons, indeed, show by works a trusting “faith” in “God” as “one.” In any case, it is clear that here in James 2:19, in this context of a larger discussion about “faith” and “works,” the demons have only “beliefs based on good reasons.” They do not have “faith,” or “trust,” not unless it can be shown by their “works” (James 2:14-17), though they do “believe” (Greek form of pistue’o).

Still, it is clear all three (“faith,” “trust,” and “beliefs based on good reasons”) require corresponding “works” to please “God,” hence, “the evil spirits … tremble with fear,” even though they do “believe,” that is, they understand accurately the “belief” about “God” as “one.” It is the same with each and every single one of us who may have “good reasons for belief,” but not the works corresponding to the beliefs we accurately hold or should understand, that is, if we add things up along our way through life.—Compare Psalm 8:3-4; Acts 10:34-36; Hebrews 3:4; Revelation 4:11.

We may have equally good and sure reasons for belief about God, just as his ‘evil sons’ have reasons for their belief (they have lived with and seen their Father [compare Genesis 1:26 (“us”); Job 38:7; Hebrews 1:10; 12:9]). According to how they are viewed, “evil spirits” simply do not have the works to complement their beliefs, beliefs which are based on the best available reasons. So, again, we can have beliefs that are clear, but if we do not have the works to show we truly do accept and trust in what we have good reasons to believe, then our pistis “cannot save.”—James 2:14.

With this in mind, let us go back to several of the main readings from the above quoted Third Edition of A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature:

1. that which evokes trust and faith

Could anything which truly “evokes trust and faith” be based on anything but “good reasons,” or on what the person believed (at the time) to be based on good reasons? True, what we think are good reasons for a particular belief may turn out not to be. But the question in terms of “faith” or “belief” is whether you are/were in a position to learn more about the best available reasons before allowing them to build up your trust/faith in a particular subject/issue? “Faith” or “belief” itself, apart from what are considered to be good reasons, could only be an assumption and an assumption is never a good reason unless, as it is sometimes used, “assumption” means “belief based on good reasons” (this can be determined by the context of the use of ‘assume’). But the thing(s) which “evokes trust and faith” is not “trust and faith”! Rather, it is the beliefs which are either based on good reasons, the best available, or not.

2. state of believing on the basis of the reliability of the one trusted, trust, confidence, faith

“On the basis of the reliability of the one [or of the good reasons] trusted.” The “state of believing” is not the pistis (“faith” / “belief[s] based on good reasons”) alone. Rather this “state of believing” includes (is founded on, in fact [see 1., above]) the beliefs which have been formed “on the basis of” a person, thing, or because of some other good reasons. These good-reason-based beliefs are what then bring about the ‘state of belief,’ which includes both demons and Christians, but who are then differentiated by their “works,” which “works” (not our beliefs or “faith,” or even the state which they bring about in us) then show we either trust in ourselves, in others, or in Jah God and in Jesus of Nazareth. And so James teaches us this about Abraham’s “faith,” or “beliefs based on good reasons,” and his “works”:

James 2:21-24 (New Revised Standard Version [1989])

Was not our ancestor Abraham justified by works when he offered his son Isaac on the altar? You see that faith was active along with his works, and faith was brought to completion by the works. Thus the scripture was fulfilled that says, “Abraham believed God, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness,” and he was called the friend of God. You see that a person is justified by works and not by faith alone.

3. that which is believed, body of faith/belief/teaching

Anyone you know who with conviction puts forth his or her beliefs will almost never do so unless the person believes the basis for the beliefs, or the supporting good reasons, are not only “good” but (hopefully) the best available. These reasons do not always have to be evident by sight (compare Hebrews 11:1). There are many things we do not directly “see” but which we believe exist (wind, gases, various microorganisms, and even for many the existence of extra terrestrials [non-spirit types]). Yet, there must be some “evident demonstration” (NWT), something which caused belief in the subject to come up in the first place, and so also whether we are supposed to believe it in association with “what is seen.”—Hebrews 11:3.

Still, there must be good reasons, the best available, otherwise we are talking science fiction, or using our imagination, not considering what is truly demonstrable or according to good reasons. If we apply this test to ourselves, we will see that in other areas of life we are guided by the best (or what we think are the best) available reasons, such as when we decide to pass through a traffic intersection. Though none of us know for sure what will happen when we go through it, we proceed anyway, even taking our lives in our own hands, perhaps every day, but for good reasons.

We do not always act consistently with the best available reasons. In most instances where this is the case, I believe this to be “sin,” essentially, for anyone who acts in a way that God would not act or encourage is, in effect, claiming to know better than the God who made us and who permits us all of our choices. Yet, if any of our chosen ways were "better" than what God intended for us, would not God have intended it for us? Of course, there are many things we do while still learning and growing as humans. But what choice of any man or woman has stood up over time and can tell us about the end after we are through, now after over 6,000 years, so that we should fail to seriously consider the possible (likely) judgment upon our death, according to our works?

The pyramids have been robbed. The temples of the ancient Americas are gone, or no longer in any use. The Goseck Circle is there, but only a trace. And what is here now will come to be just as these other places have become, regardless of how they once were, or how they were once thought of by others. Their beliefs were either good-reason based, or something else. So, too, will it prove to be for each one of our generations, or so I and others far greater than I have seen, and so we, too, believe(d).—Ecclesiastes 12:13-14.

Yet, this must then be shown or proven to whatever extent is possible, reasonably, similar to how we already make other important decisions in life, as reasoning creatures. Through this process of evaluating good reasons we, ultimately, determine what to believe, or what to keep believing, and what no longer to believe if we have progressed in our pistis, which can be shown by what we do, and by how treat others, since we should be consistent in both.

There are always exceptions. But I'm talking about belief(s), faith, something we can trust in because of having available the best reasons, or because they are there to find. It starts out that way for each one of us, and then comes and goes as we come and go through life. Yet, it is unavoidable: We have beliefs. We have faith. We trust many people, and in many things. Usually, if not always but certainly most often, we do so because of the best available reasons, or because of what we perceive (hopefully also for good reasons!) them to be.

Humans can and should try to achieve an increasing, individual consistency, which can then be tested against or in comparison with the beliefs, with the supporting good reasons, and with the resulting “works” or actions of others. Then each individual can determine if any correction is warranted, if any improvement can be reasonably made, or if something can be done to help bring about a greater good for all, and why not to Jah’s praise?

Ultimately, as a Christian, a person will accept his or her failures, keep working at doing good to others, and so also thereby to ourselves, for what we send out comes back (compare Matthew 12:35-37). A Christian tries his or her best to show “faith” in Jesus of Nazareth by our “works,” just as we try to do with every other belief we have which is also based on the best available reasons. In so doing, we do not think we “earn” forgiveness for the errors we have made while existing on this earth in God’s image. We do ask for, we do hope for, and we do pray for forgiveness, according to our “faith,” or beliefs based on good reasons, which should be shown by and which should be consistent with our “works.”

The ultimate test for any belief, for any good reason, or for any “work” is whether you would accept it yourself, and so use it to measure others (compare Matthew 7:1-2). This is, in fact, what it means to be a Christian or to have pistis shown by works in following the “Golden Rule,” given by Jesus of Nazareth. If this is who you are, or whom you try to be, and if you also praise Jah God at the same time for his expressly evident, intentionally intelligent designs (including the demonstrably intelligent intent in our use of “time” and in the division of human language), then you are a Christian Witness of Jah, or Jah’s Christian witness.—Psalms 149 and 150; Revelation 19:1, 3, 4, 6.

They're Not Who They Think They Are

Millions of those loyal to the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society follow exactly what is told to them by the ones who govern the Watchtower Society, namely, by the ones who govern the Society’s teachings. These ones have taken upon themselves the name, “Governing Body,” and in a larger sense, the “faithful and discreet slave” (based on Matthew 24:45-47). The Governing Body and thousands of others in the Watchtower Society claim to be part of the 144,000 described in Revelation Chapters 7 and 14.

Together with millions of others who are said to be the “great crowd” of Revelation Chapter 7, the Governing Body and the remaining number of those claiming to belong to the 144,000 comprise the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society and its related agencies and congregations, though they also call themselves, “Jehovah’s Witnesses.”

Yet, the “great crowd” in Revelation Chapter 7 is said to appear after “the great tribulation,” which even the Watchtower Society does not believe has been concluded. So this is a false identity, one in which millions of people believe they are already a part of a “great crowd” which according to the group’s own teaching could not possibly be here, yet (Revelation 7:14-17). But the group which is not yet here is the largest part of the Watchtower organization! What, though, about the other part of the organization, the one which is made up of the Governing Body and the balance of those whom the Society accepts as part of the 144,000 of Revelation 7 and 14? Does it, too, have a false identity demonstrable through the Society's own teachings?

Consider the identity which occurs with the Society’s teaching about itself as the “faithful and discreet slave[s]” appointed by Jesus according to Matthew 24:45-47. The Society continues to claim it was appointed as a composite “slave” (and so not one of individual identity) in 1919, after Jesus was made King in 1914, according to the Society’s interpretation of various Bible texts which are themselves not in line with or based on the best interpretation of the best available, biblical evidence.

That this is, in fact, the teaching of the Society and of its Witnesses concerning the “faithful slave’s” appointment by Jesus in 1919 is clear from the following (with my underlining added):

[W]hen the Master arrived, he found his faithful slave conscientiously feeding the domestics as well as preaching the good news. Greater responsibilities now awaited that slave. Jesus said: “Truly I say to you, He will appoint him over all his belongings.” (Matthew 24:47) Jesus did this in 1919, after the slave had passed through a period of testing. Why, though, did “the faithful and discreet slave” receive greater responsibilities? Because the Master had received an increase in his belongings. Jesus was given the kingship in 1914. What are the belongings over which the newly crowned Master appointed his faithful slave? All the spiritual things that belong to Him here on earth. For example, two decades after Christ’s enthronement in 1914, “a great crowd” of “other sheep” was identified. (Revelation 7:9; John 10:16) [“A Slave Who Is Both Faithful and Discreet,” The Watchtower, March 1, 2004, page 12, paragraphs18-19.]

Yet, in spite of what they claim occurred in 1919, or in 1914, or in any other year, these self-appointed “faithful slave[s]” have continuously, and without any expressed, meaningful (and thus enduring) apology, proclaimed, “The appointed time is near!” in Jesus’ and in Jah’s names, in spite of Jesus’ and Jah’s explicit warnings about those who would speak in the just such a way, using the exact or nearly the exact same words, “Many will come in my name saying, ... ‘The end has come!’ Do not follow them.”—Luke 21:8; compare Deuteronomy 18:20-22.

Note again the final part of Luke 21:8 as Jesus’ directive to anyone who would call him- or herself his follower, “Do not go follow them,” that is, do not follow those who say, “The end has come!” in his name. The final part of Deuteronomy 18:22 is Jah’s directive to his people, “Do not become frightened of him,” that is, do not be afraid of the prophet who falsely speaks to others in Jah’s name. If the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society and its earlier and other corporate identities is not the leading religious organization for over the past 125+, that is, leading in terms of having falsely proclaimed, “The end has drawn near!” then who is? Who else would better fit this description, demonstrably, (meaning I can show you), than the Society?

Who other than the Society even comes close to so consistently and with such world-wide notoriety attaching Jah’s and Jesus’ names to false proclamations and to false, public teachings about “the end”? I know of no person or any other group which can match the Society in this ongoing, enduring, and refusal-to-stop intent on proclaiming, “The end is near!” for well over the past 125+ years. For details on various dates put forth by the Society see the First Dissertation in my Three Dissertations on the Teachings of Jehovah’s Witnesses (Murrieta, CA: Elihu Books, 2002), pages 61-150. Yet, the Society does not identify itself as those against whom Jesus speaks. And they cannot possibly have the freedom of speech to identify anyone else as such. Who, then, do they think they are?

In addition to appointing themselves as ‘Governors’ over their organization’s teachings and policies, and as the “faithful and discreet slave[s]” of Matthew 24:45-47 (whom Jesus says will not be identified as such until “he comes” according to Matthew 24:46 [translated “arriving” in NWT]), the Society identifies its Governing Body and the others alive today who claim to be part of the 144,000 of Revelation Chapters 7 and 14 as the “brothers” of Jesus according to Matthew 25:40. Note carefully, please, the Society’s presentations here (underlining added):

In the near future, Christ will judge people of the nations on the basis of how they have acted toward his brothers yet on earth. … Matthew 25:31-46. [“Waiting in ‘Eager Expectation,” The Watchtower, September 15, 1998, page 17, paragraph 7.]

Have members of the [“faithful and discreet” slave class] been helped similarly by individuals who are not anointed members of the Israel of God? Yes, they have been supported by the “great crowd” of “other sheep,” who have appeared on the scene during these last days. (Revelation 7:9; John 10:16; Isaiah 61:5) Foretelling the warm, loving support that these “sheep” would offer his anointed brothers, Jesus said to them prophetically: “I became hungry and you gave me something to eat; I got thirsty and you gave me something to drink. I was a stranger and you received me hospitably; naked, and you clothed me. I fell sick and you looked after me. I was in prison and you came to me. . . . Truly I say to you, To the extent that you did it to one of the least of these my brothers, you did it to me.”—Matthew 25:35-40. [“When Jesus Comes in Kingdom Glory,” The Watchtower, May 15, 1997, page 13, paragraph 16.]

Today, almost five million members of the great crowd are living under the active leadership of the heavenly King Jesus Christ. They are in subjection to Christ and in close association with his anointed brothers yet on earth. Concerning the treatment that the great crowd accord these anointed ones, Jesus says: “Truly I say to you, To the extent that you did it to one of the least of these my brothers, you did it to me.” (Matthew 25:40) Because they unselfishly render aid to Christ’s anointed brothers, those of the great crowd are judged to have done good to Jesus himself. This helps them to have a secure relationship with Jesus Christ and Jehovah God. They have been privileged to join the anointed remnant in becoming God’s Witnesses and bearers of his name.—Isaiah 43:10, 11; Joel 2:31, 32. [“Saved Alive Through the Great Tribulation,” The Watchtower, February 15, 1995, page 15, paragraph 8.

What is done to his brothers he counts as being done to him personally. The sheeplike ones deliberately do good to Christ’s brothers because they recognize them to be such. They appreciate that Jesus’ spiritual brothers are the ambassadors of Jehovah’s Kingdom, and they want to give concrete evidence that they are taking their stand with them on the side of that Kingdom. [“Expanded Activities During Christ’s Presence,” The Watchtower, May 1, 1993, page 20, paragraph 21.]

Note especially the last quoted paragraph’s underlined part, “because they recognize them to be such. “The People of God, Part Three: ‘The Sons of the Kingdom,’” IN MEDIO 2.5 (May, 2007 [rev. April, 2008]), page 14. Yet, as I wrote in an earlier article on a similar subject, “If the ‘sheep’ are those who today know those who are Christ’s ‘brothers,’ and they treat them as if they were Christ himself because of this prophecy [Matthew 25:39-40], why would they in the future then question the basis for their approval?”

It is not possible for the “sheep” of Matthew 25:34-40 to be those who already know the identity of the ones they are to support, for they say clearly in response to Jesus’ approval of their works, “When did we see you?” If these “sheep” are those who follow the Watchtower Society’s teaching that its own “faithful slave[s]” are Christ’s brothers, then they would not later be unclear at all about how is it they were approved, because they believe they already know their identity!

This point has not gone unnoticed by the Watchtower Society, by its Governors, or by its “faithful slave[s].” But it has gone unanswered. Consider the Society’s comments here in response to a question similar to the one I have raised about the “sheep” and the “brothers” of Christ, according to Matthew 25:39-40, which further shows why I believe they are not who they think they are:

If the other sheep are now preaching the good news with the anointed and aiding them, why would they ask: “Lord, when did we see you hungry and feed you, or thirsty, and give you something to drink?” (Matthew 25:37) There could be various reasons. This is a parable. By means of it, Jesus shows his deep concern for his spiritual brothers; he feels with them, suffers with them. [“What Future for the Sheep and the Goats?” The Watchtower, October 15, 1995, page 26, paragraph 12; underlining added.]

The above is a clear deflection, a non-answer followed by an unrelated consideration of Jesus’ ‘feelings,’ when the point raised by the question asked in the opening sentence of the above quoted Watchtower shows that the Society recognizes the very problem they have with their view of themselves. As for the “various reasons” for why this problem exists, The Watchtower mentions what everyone already knows (it is a “parable”) as if that has something to do with the issue. Is the Society suggesting that the “sheep” really do know those whom they are to treat as if they are Christ himself? Yes, in fact, they are teaching just that in the above quotation!

Rather, however, perhaps Jesus was right: Those to whom he speaks do not know those to whom they are giving. Is that not the very point of Jesus’ illustration about the Samaritan neighbor (Luke 10:29-37)? Indeed, that is precisely how acts of giving are to be made:

Matthew 6:2-4, New World Translation (1984)

[W]hen you go making gifts of mercy, do not blow a trumpet ahead of you, just as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and in the streets, that they may be glorified by men. Truly I say to you, They are having their reward in full. But you, when making gifts of mercy, do not let your left hand know what your right is doing, that your gifts of mercy may be in secret; then your Father who is looking on in secret will repay you.

This is a much more consistent understanding of the subject, and one which will not permit any man or group of men to elevate ourselves above others when we are supposed to be Christ’s “slave,” and so the ‘slave’ of others if necessary (John 13:13-16), but not ‘Governors.’ As for the identity of Jesus’ “brothers,” as it turns out, this is rather easy to define, “Whoever does the will of my Father who is in heaven, the same is my brother, and sister.”—Matthew 12:50.

As for who determines whether we individually do Jah’s will, this will be shown by our faith, and our faith will be shown by our works (James 2:17-26; compare Romans 2:6-11). Our works need not include anything having to do with supporting those who are, demonstrably, and for good reasons, not who they think they are, or who millions of others want them to be for their own sakes, though not for Jah’s or Jesus’ glory and praise.—Philippians 2:9-11; Revelation 19:1-6.

As for the Watchtower Society and its “faithful and discreet slave[s],” Jesus’ warnings in Luke 21:8 and his teaching in Matthew 25:39-40 in contrast to the Society’s own teaching about its “faithful slave[s]” as Christ’s “brothers,” shows clearly to me that they are not who they think they are. Otherwise, their “sheep” would not know they are treating and supporting the Christ by their treatment of the Society’s Governors and by the way they treat the rest of its “faithful and discreet slave[s].”

If the Watchtower Society’s “faithful slave” class comprise Christ's "brothers" on earth, then those whom they treat as Christ's "sheep" would not be misled into a similar identity crisis, thinking they are already a “great crowd” who by their own teaching has not yet even appeared, in as much as no one has come “out of the great tribulation” (Revelation 7:14). Thus, like the Watchtower's “faithful and discreet slave[s]” whom the "great crowd" (which has not yet appeared) support, they are not who they think they are, either.—Revelation 7:9, 13-17.

Using "Amen"

If you pray according to a Jewish, Christian, or other religious tradition, do you say, "Amen"? Many people do, for it is a biblical term often heard or used openly at times to conclude a 'blessing' over a meal or a prayer for a group.

"Amen" is a Hebrew word ('amen) which comes to us from the same root from which we get the Hebrew word for "truth" (Hebrew: 'emet). According to Alfred Jepsen, it is nonetheless "difficult to determine whether the original meaning [of 'amen] is closer to the Arabic and thus meant 'faithful' or 'secure,' or to the Syriac and thus meant 'enduring.'" Jepsen then writes (with underlining added):

Furthermore, we cannot confidently deduce the meaning of a word in the later development of a language even if we clearly establish the original meaning of that word. Thus, the meaning of the word derived from the root 'mn can hardly be explained by determining its original meaning. And when we do not know the original meaning, the development of a word can lead us far from that meaning to something entirely different. The meaning of a word cannot be inferred from the (more or less certain) etymology, but only by a careful study of the way it is used in the language. [Alfred Jepsen, "'mn," Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, vol. 1, Revised Edition, G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren, eds., translated by John T. Willis (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974), page 293.]

In the Hebrew-Aramaic books of the Old Testament, 'amen is used 27 times in the sense of "amen," that is, similar to the use(s) of the same word today. It is used twice in Numbers 5:22, twelve times in Deuteronomy Chapter 27 (once in each verse from 15-26), once in 1 Kings 1:36, once in 1 Chronicles 16:36, three times in Nehemiah (once in 5:13 and twice in 8:6), six times in the Psalms 41:14; 72:19 (2); 89:53 (2); 106:48, and twice in Jeremiah 11:5; 28:6.

There are two other uses of 'amen which are different in their use from the above 27 instances, but where 'amen can similarly be transliterated, "A/amen," namely, in Isaiah 65:16 (discussed in 5., below). Jepsen ("'mn," pages 320-322) notes the following five (5) Hebrew Bible uses of 'amen according to these texts:

1.   'Amen indicates the speaker's acknowledgment and shared feeling for what has been previously said or planned. Examples: 1 Kings 1:36; Jeremiah 11:5 and 28:6.

2.   Curses which are first uttered and then accepted by others through use of 'amen with the meaning, "May it happen in just this way." Examples: Numbers 5:22; Deuteronomy 27:15-26; Nehemiah 5:13.

3.   Affirmative responses to prayers in praise of Jah, which by use of 'amen "the community makes the prayer ... its own" (Jepsen, page 321, c.). Examples: Nehemiah 8:6; 1 Chronicles 16:36.

4.   From the practice of ending community prayers with 'amen, noted in 3. above, there likely arose "the practice of ending individual books of the Bible with an ascription of praise to God and its accompanying 'Amen'" (Jepsen, page 321, d.). Examples: Psalms 41:14; 72:19; 89:53; 106:48.

5.   The use of 'amen in this last category is different from the preceding four uses, in that there are instances which appear to use the expression, "God of Amen," where 'amen either has a meaning which describes the kind of "God" Jah is or it should be transliterated, "God of Amen." If this latter use is accepted, then Jepsen believes it is correct to understand this as containing the same biblical tradition we find in the New Testament, where Jesus is "called ho amen ['the Amen']" (Jepsen, page 322) after also being described as "the beginning of God's creation" in Revelation 3:14. Examples: Twice (2) in Isaiah 65:16.

These last uses in Isaiah 65:16 bring us into the New Testament use of the same expression, though it is only used once in this way (Revelation 3:14). Apart from this one instance where it appears to parallel the use of the same word in the Hebrew text of Isaiah 65:16 (compare also the way the "Amen" speaks in Revelation 3:2, 12, again paralleling the "God of Amen" language found in Isaiah 65), the majority of NT uses of amen have Jesus as the most frequent user.

However, unlike the common use of "amen" today to conclude speech or prayers, Jesus uses "Amen, amen" (doubled for emphasis) twenty-five (25) times to begin his speech. Never does Jesus use "amen" or even "amen, amen" to conclude a prayer or a blessing, not even when concluding his model prayer for others to use.—See Matthew 6:9-13; Luke11:1-4.

Of course, there is nothing in the books of the Bible which is made 'invalid' (Matthew 15:6; Mark 7:13) by a tradition which uses "amen" in a discreet or in an expressed, appropriate manner to show a person's acceptance of what has already been said, or to otherwise give an affirmative response or assurance when concluding our own prayers, or at the end of any prayer said for and accepted by others.

This is something which early Christians did do according to 1 Corinthians 14:16, and possibly also according to 2 Corinthians 1:20, though this latter example may involve saying "amen" at times other than at the end of written or spoken prayers or expressions.—See also Romans 1:25; 9:5; 11:36; 15:33; Galatians 1:5; 6:18.

On the other hand, there is no reason why this one word ('amen) must always be used to give forth such expression, or as a part of a prayer to God or at the end of a blessing said for a group or family.  So next time you conclude your prayer, try ending it with an expression of meaning which you personally can accept as similar to "amen," such as, "May these things be so." It may make your calls and prayers to God more personal.

You'll be tempted to still add an "amen" even if you do express the meaning rather than the word. If so, that's okay! Remember, Jesus often started his speech using "Amen, amen," so there is nothing to suggest Christians cannot use either an expression of meaning related to "amen," or an expression to God together with "amen," when we conclude our prayers or blessings, in Jesus' name.—John 15:7; 16:23.

A Letter from A.T. Robertson to E.J. Goodspeed about "Russellite Propaganda"

In my answer to the question, "Why do different editions of the New World Translation (NWT) contain different footnotes to its rendering of John 8:58?" ("Upon the Lampstand," December 17, 2009), on page 8 and on the related note on page 14 (for note 38 on page 8), I wrote  the following in part concerning a possible reason for why renowned Southern Baptist Greek grammarian A.T. Robertson (1863-1934) failed to properly identify the Greek idiom used in John 8:58, namely, because in my view Robertson was "at times overly motivated by loyalty to Trinitarianism." 

Here is what I wrote from my pages 8 and 14 on this point in a larger context:

Though several Greek and New Testament scholars before K.L. McKay accurately wrote about the meaning of John 8:58, McKay has helped to further undo part of the damage done by Trinitarian scholars such as A.T. Robertson, whose theology appears to have overridden his grammatical skills when it comes to texts such as John 8:58. ... [A.T.] Robertson was at times overly motivated by loyalty to Trinitarianism in his treatment of certain grammatical issues, which can be seen in his handling of the use of eimi in John 8:58. Consider Robertson’s lamenting of “those who” believed various things during his time, including “those who accept the New Testament writings as adequate interpretations of Christ and Christianity, but who say that Trinitarianism is a misinterpretation of the New Testament” (A.T. Robertson, The Minister and His Greek New Testament [Grand Rapids: Baker, repr. 1977], page 61).

The Elihu Books Topical Index now contains a copy of a handwritten letter from A.T. Robertson to Bible translator E.J. Goodspeed (1871-1962) dated May 19, 1931, which I believe further reveals a theological bias which may explain why at times in his writings Robertson cites or even discusses certain theologically charged texts (like John 8:58), only to then abandon a full and fair  grammatical assessment in favor of the assumption of Trinitarianism.  

This does not mean Robertson's works are not full of much that is useful, enlightening, and historically interesting. But I do believe this letter from Robertson to Goodspeed further reveals the importance of keeping Robertson's knowledge, in particular his written expression of that knowledge, in its proper and full context, especially given the wide and longstanding circulation that Robertson's writings have been given, which writings should be accepted or rejected based on the good reasons provided or not provided or considered thoroughly or even at all by Robertson, as with anyone else's writings.

In this letter (a transcription of which I provide below) Robertson expresses his receipt and appreciation for Goodspeed's (then) newly released, "Strange New Gospels," in which Goodspeed reviews various documents and texts related to the New Testament, as understood during that early part of the twentieth century (in the mid to late 1920s). In writing to Goodspeed about this new work, Robertson brings up the English "Concordant N.T.," which Robertson calls "Russellite propaganda," referring to the founder and first president of Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society (later Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society), C.T. Russell (1852-1916).

Here is my transcription of the letter below the handwritten date:

My dear Dr. Goodspeed: I have
only this morning, after my re-
covery from the influenza,
read your useful and timely
"Strange Gospels."

I get frequent inquires about
some of that stuff and I am
glad to be able to tell of your
careful presentation of the facts.

Only this morning I have a
letter from California (sent
by way

from New Zealand) about the

[Page 2]
Concordant N.T.; a Russellite
propaganda which is de-
ceiving many innocent people.
I denounce it on occasion.
I wish you would take one chapter (or one N.T. book)
in it and expose its fal-
lacies and hallucinations.

It is doing much more
harm than the "Strange Gospels."
I have marked in the circular
the "New Short Grammar"
(Richard R. Smith, Inc.) which
you may stumble on.

Cordially yours,
A.T. Robertson

Clearly, despite being a learned and accomplished Greek grammarian, A.T. Robertson was heavily influenced by his theology, so much so that he considered other groups' views (such as those of the "Russellites" and those expressed in the "Concordant N.T.") to be "propaganda which is deceiving many innocent people," and whose "hallucinations" Robertson 'denounced on occasion.'

Yet, it is A.T. Robertson whom we also find characterizing  another well-regarded Greek grammarians before him, G.B. Winer, as having "exerted a pernicious influence" over those scholars who differed with Robertson (including Winer) over texts such as Titus 2:13. But this very text is one Robertson himself interprets according to later (that is, post-biblical) theological constructs, specifically, those having to do with the Trinity and its concepts of "God" as positively referring not only to the Trinity (though only "one God" is claimed) but also applying positively to the "persons" of the Trinity, none of whom are individual beings themselves, but all of whom share equally in the one being of the Trinity. This equal sharing is what it is that allows Robertson to use "God" or "Deity" for Jesus in New Testament texts such as Titus 2:13.—See Robertson's, "The Greek Article and the Deity of Christ," The Expositor, 8th Series, volume 21 (1921), pages 182-188.

See page 275 of my Third Edition of Jehovah's Witnesses Defended, note 103, for the reference to Robertson's characterization of Winer (which is on page 187 of "The Greek Article" article by Robertson, cited above). See Chapter 2 of my Third Edition of Jehovah's Witnesses Defended for a discussion of how Trinitarian writers and scholars have for centuries (for over 1,500 years, in fact) misinterpreted the use of "G-god" nearly everywhere if not, in fact, everywhere the original words for "G-god" appear in the Old and in the New Testaments, as well as in many if not in all Dead Sea Scroll and Jewish Pseudepigraphal literature available to date.—See Jehovah's Witnesses Defended, Third Edition, Chapter 2.

Of course, Trinitarians' view and uses of "G-god" would not necessarily keep them from using the same terms for "G-god" of idols or for non-Judeo-Christian "gods," accurately. Yet, because the words informing Trinitarianism are either biblical words (for examples, "God," "Father," and "Son") or they seem like and may in some sense be biblical words, but the biblical meaning and what we read about the meaning of the same words in the writings of Trinitarians are nothing alike. This includes the word "person," which is used by Trinitarians in a theological, metaphysical sense for members of the Trinity, though "person" is never used in this same way in the Bible in relation to the Trinity, or for the Trinity itself, leaving Trinitarians such as Dr. James White to refer to the Trinity as a "what" as opposed to the three "persons" of the Trinity who are "who's."—See James White, The Forgotten Trinity (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Bethany, 1998), page 27, and my review and response to the same in my Jehovah's Witnesses Defended, Third Edition, pages 134-154.

Still, unless people require the Trinitarian to explain the basis for his or her use of every single use of the words for "G-god," then it will be that much more difficult for you and for them to see the meanings given to the words for "G-god" and for related, descriptive words and phrases such as "Son" or "sons of God" in the biblical writings and in other, related literature written or available during the biblical periods.

Correction and Prefatory Note to "Origin of Life" Blog Series

In my third part of the "Origin of Life" series, in my post dated April 5, 2010, "Intentional Intelligence in Non-Human Life: The Division of Human Language," I have added the following corrective, clarifying note at the end of that article:

[*AUTHOR'S NOTE: On Monday, May 3, 2010, I removed "biological, evolutionary view of life" from the second-to-last paragraph in this article and in its place I am using "non-biological, evolutionary view of the origin of life." By this I intend to correct and to make clearer that I believe Hawking's (and others') view of life ultimately involves acceptance of something other than "life" or of what or of who is already alive as the origin of life itself. I believe such a "non-biological" view of life's origin is not only unscientific (because it does not build from even one single, observable, repeatable example) but it also contradicts what science otherwise, everywhere, and always to this day has shown us: Life only comes from something or from someone already alive.]

This correction was necessary and important enough to also cite here in a separate Blog, both to highlight the correction itself and so also to then set the stage properly for my next Blog in this series, which will further discuss some of Professor Hawking's views of life, of its origin, and of its evolution, specifically, its intentional or unintentional evolution. In this case, the above error was one of expression on my part, in that the point I am making or that I was trying to express prior to the correction noted above is, in part, that many evolutionists (such as Hawking) ultimately are not consistent with science when it comes to their view of life, that is, from its origin to its evolution. 

I believe and I intend to further show and support with what I believe will be considered good if not the best available reasons, that a large part of the failure to connect life with life and, ultimately, to show that scientifically life should be considered eternal (since life is, in fact, here), involves the misunderstanding and/or a failure for some reason by many to actually use what science shows us more clearly than nearly anything else, namely, that life only comes from something or from someone already alive. Therefore, I will attempt to further this discussion with additional, testable reasons in my next Blog in this series.

Until then, I want to make sure I correctly express my understanding of Professor Hawking's view of the origin of life as "non-biological," ultimately, though his related view of the evolution of already existing life may and is likely in many ways "biological," though after the fact, that is, since I can and will show further that for Hawking life does not evolve from life. Rather, only after life is already existing would its evolution then also be potentially considered as having to do with "life," at least for those who would consider anything but life or something or someone already alive as the scientifically demonstrable, eternal source of all other forms and types of life.

Recent "Earthquakes" and the Teachings of Jesus of Nazareth

The earth moves and it shakes, in different ways (because of different types of earthquakes), at different times, and in different places, affecting many different people according to our activities, our location, and our surroundings when the earthquake or its aftershocks hit. Recent evidence of this comes from the effects of quakes in Haiti, in Chili, in Central and South America, and now another large quake hit a populated area in the Solomon Islands. It is at times like these when some  religious persons consider the relationship between earthquakes and various "prophecies," such as those we find expressed in certain parts of the Bible.

The most popular or frequently referenced biblical accounts involving "earthquakes" come from the best historical records of the teachings of the founder of Christianity, Jesus of Nazareth. Without making any special claims, and following my pattern on Twitter, "DAY TEXT" translations based on my experience studying biblical and related texts, below I present what I believe accurately represents the meaning of Jesus' words about "earthquakes," according to the three New Testament accounts referenced.

In what follows I will present only those parts of the accounts which I believe are needed to have a reasonable appreciation for the context of Jesus' reference to "earthquakes" in each account, in his response to questions (Matthew 24:3) about dramatic events which were to occur in connection with the temple in Jerusalem and the "conclusion of the age" (with my underlining):

Matthew 24:6, 7

[Jesus said] "Make sure you are not afraid." ... "Because ... there will be ... earthquakes in different locations."

Mark 13:5-8

[Jesus said] "Look out so no one misleads you. Many will come in my name ... and they will mislead many. But whenever you hear of wars or reports of conflicts, do not be afraid. It is necessary for these things to take place, however, the end is not yet. Because a nation will rise up against a nation and a kingdom against a kingdom, there will be earthquakes in different locations, there will be famines. These things are just the start of the sufferings."

Luke 21:9, 11

[Jesus said] "Whenever you hear about wars or insurrections do not be frightened. It is necessary for these things to come first. But the end is not immediately after [these things]. ... There will be great earthquakes and famines and plagues in various places ..."

When you compare what Jesus taught above with what those who have proclaimed, "The end has drawn near!" (Luke 21:8) have also taught about the significance of "earthquakes" over the past 100 years, or since 1914, it is clear that there is good reason for concern about the message which some have attached to "earthquakes" and to Jesus' name, for example:

This is another part of the sign that [Jesus] gave: ‘There will be earthquakes in one place after another.’ Do you know what an earthquake is? It makes the ground shake under your feet. Houses fall down and people often get killed. Since the year 1914 there have been many more earthquakes every year than there were before.—“Jesus Gives a Sign,” The Watchtower, July 1, 1971, page 406.

The “time of the end” has come. The sign of the “last days” is visible evidence. Never before in history, prior to 1914, have all these things occurred at once upon one generation: ["Signs" and "Scripture Proof" are then listed, including:] Unusual number of earthquakes ... Matthew 24:7.—“Time of the End,” The Watchtower, December 1, 1954, page 712.

Jesus also mentioned famines, pestilences, and earthquakes. (Matthew 24:3, 7, 8; Luke 21:6, 7, 10, 11) In many respects, such calamities have increased in scope and severity.—“Our Watchfulness Takes On Greater Urgency,” The Watchtower, December 15, 2003, page 14.

The effect of continuous presentations like these which associate "earthquakes" and other "signs" with "one generation" or with a date such as "1914" is revealed in part by the following:

[O]ur reviewing from time to time the Scriptural proof that we are living close to the end of this system will help us not to lose sight of the important truths regarding that coming end. It is also good to take note of unfolding world events that fulfill Bible prophecy. One brother in Germany wrote: “Every time I watch the news—the wars, the earthquakes, the violence, and the contamination of our planet—it drives home to me the nearness of the end.”—“‘Keep on the Watch’!” The Watchtower, January 1, 2003, par. 5, pages 18-19.

Christians do not need "earthquakes" to 'drive home the nearness of the end,' that is, if we are balanced in our outlook, in part, by not looking to such things for any kind of 'reminder.' For why should we or anyone else depend on an "earthquake" for our belief, that is, if our belief is both based on good reasons and if those good reasons make clear to us otherwise that each day we should be alert to the times in which we live, for no matter what "time" it is it is our time, at least for now.—Ecclesiastes 12:13-14; Romans 2:6; 1 Thessalonians 5:1, 2, 15; Revelation 3:2-3.

Other than general, regular safety reminders and related good counsel, Christians should not be afraid of anything which occurs on this earth, or in the heavens, and we must try never to misuse such occurrences by, for example, proclaiming, "The end has drawn near!" in association with signs such as "earthquakes" or anything else, for Jesus of Nazareth warned us against those who would do these very things (Luke 21:8). Instead we should help others and do good in Jah's image, like Jesus of Nazareth, whether there are "great earthquakes," small ones,  or none at all.

Intentional Intelligence in Non-Human Life: The Division of Human Language

Humans are not that old. By “that old” I write, of course, comparatively, that is, where it involves the apparent periods of life for various other life forms or other bio- or ecosystems which we find through searching the layers of earth’s history (fossils), though there are even here questions about sedimentation and dating which I will consider separately, specifically, as it relates to dating the great variety of life which has come upon the earth.

Viewing the existence of man comparatively with what may be prehistoric forms of life which appear to have lived on the earth for long periods of time, measured by hundreds of thousands or perhaps even by millions of years, when it comes to humankind (men and women) the best available evidence today suggests our existence is from 6,000 to perhaps as old as 10,000 years. True, there are findings and claims by some relative to what is considered early “human” activity in Australia based on what are thought to be pieces of “flint” and “tiny sharp stones that were used as knives,” dating as far back as 35,000 years ago (see, “Ancient Tools Found in Australia,” AP [April 8, 2008]), as well as what some believe to be “footprints” in the same area from about 20,000 years ago (see Sean Markey, “20,000-Year-Old Human Footprints Found in Australia,” National Geographic News [August 3, 2006]). But whether such findings and their present dating are accurate (and some appear questionable on several grounds [see my pending, separate Blog article]), other than what is considered a “paleolithic bone flute” found in Europe (which I will also discuss as part of my separate, pending Blog on dating methods), these and similar findings are limited to things which do not necessarily indicate human existence or intelligence.

Below I will provide several examples of what we would accept as early, incontrovertibly clear human activity like (and even greater than) we see in our modern age. Indeed, though there is evidence to show the existence of various other human-like creatures on the earth (the most popular of which is “Neanderthal,” who was similar to but also very different from humans today), “humans” are now thought by some to have caused the disappearance of these other, similar but different creatures (see, “How Neanderthals met a grisly fate: devoured by humans,” by Robin McKie, science editor for “The Observer” [May 17, 2009]).

Though there are many ways in which we might define our present-day humanity or our identity as “humans,” the following are five (5) clear indicators of the presence of what I believe we would without hesitation consider a present-day “human”:

1.     Metallurgy:

This involves the study and mixture of metals which is ultimately, and which was originally, for the making of tools and weapons. However, according to Piotr Bienkowski and Alan Ralph Millard, “there is a lack of evidence for metal tools because metal was extensively recycled, because tools were rarely placed in graves, and because much research has focused on public buildings” (Dictionary of the Ancient Near East [Philadelphia: University Press of Pennsylvania, 2000], page 294). Bienkowski and Millard go on to reveal that as far as metal tools are concerned, these are only as early as “Old Babylonian date” (from the 20th century BCE to the late 18th or early 17th centuries BCE), and that a “group of tenth-century BC iron tools from Tell Taanach in Palestine shows a similar range of implements” (Dictionary of the Ancient Near East, page 294). Even if we accept that “the Hongshan” (early Chinese culture from 4500 to 2250 BCE) had “knowledge of metallurgy and employed the use of copper (possible iron) metal tools to work their Jade masterpieces,” this puts the manipulation of metal for use as tools and/or for weapons by humans resembling our use of the same (metal) today, to as far back as between 3,800 and 6,500 years ago.

Again, for a planet that is said to be billions of years old, with life forms which have existed in spectacular completeness and variety for millions of years, 3,800 to 6,500 years is “not that long”! Of interest and in further support of a similar time for when humans began to intentionally and with what we consider “intelligence” manipulate and then use metals and their mixtures (alloys), the historical record in the Bible names the one who began the manipulation of metal within the first 130 to the reported 930 years of the biblical Adam’s life, “Tubalcain.” In Genesis 4:22 Tubalcain is said to have been “the one shaping any kind of bronze or iron.” Compare this with Josephus’ Antiquities of the Jews (Book I, Chap. 2.2), “But Tubal/Jubel, ... first of all invented the art of making brass” (Whiston/Loeb translations).

The Bible has been consistently shown to contain reliable historical information confirmed by numerous archaeological findings. For example, in addition to findings such as the Moabite Stone (840-830 BCE) and tiny silver scrolls (7th century BCE), both of which provide ancient validation for portions of the Bible (including 2 Kings Chapter 3 and Numbers 6:24-26, respectively), there is evidence from other nations and kingdoms about events or people from the Bible. These include the Stele of Merneptah (13th century BCE) and the Tel-Dan Stele of the mid-9th century BCE, which records the victory of the Syrians over the “King of Israel” and the “King of the House of David,” the latter of which is consistent also with 2 Kings 6:24, 8:28, and 9:15-16.—See also “Beliefs Based on the Best Available Reasons” (Elihu Books, 2009 [2011]), inside column labeled, “The Bible,” note 8.

It should, therefore, be no great surprise to find that the Bible also records the approximate time and the name of the one who invented metallurgy, or that the time the Bible gives for the rise of metal-working is consistent with the best archaeological evidence concerning the same. The rise and development of metallurgy allows us to trace our modern human history back to between 3,800 and 6,500 years.

2.     Buildings and Civilizations:

Humans today and throughout our recorded past have built buildings, structures, and cities or civilizations in or around them and in which to live. While there have been some findings of structures believed to date back approximately 8,000 years (see, “Prehistoric building found in Tel Aviv,” AP January 11, 2010), these are far different from the kinds of building or structures described as having had their “top in the heavens” (compare Genesis 11:2). Indeed, the oldest of such buildings or cities which have come to light through archeological discovery include the Egyptian pyramids (3809 to 2853 BCE) and Stonehenge (2400-2200 BCE), neither of which exceed 6,000 years in age.

This approximate but good-reason based view is consistent with what is recorded as having occurred within the first 130 or the entire 930 years of the biblical Adam’s life, namely, the birth of “Lamech,” who is described as the first “of those who dwell in tents” (Genesis 4:20). Subsequently, the Bible records that humans like us “migrated from the east” and “came upon a plain in the land of Shinar,” or Babylon (in modern-day Iraq), where they decided to build “a city and a tower with its top in the heavens” (Genesis 11:2-4). This “tower” or “ziggurat” (Hebrew: migdal [likely a loan-word from the Akkadian ziqqurat or zaqaru, meaning, “to be high up”]) of “Shinar”/Babylon may be consistent with archaeological findings of other, similar structures in the region of ancient Mesopotamia, such as the Ziggurat of Ur, which is dated to around 2100 BCE.

3.     Writing:

The oldest evidence of any form of written (and, hence, likely spoken) language is believed to be on pottery from Harappa, in southern Egypt, which contain “primitive words” at the tomb of the “Scorpion king” dated to between 3300 and 3200 BCE, as well as the writing of the Sumerians from “the Mesopotamian civilization around 3100 BCE.” The earliest of these Sumerian writings are believed to date between 3500 and 3000 BCE. This is also around the time (early 40th to around the 22nd centuries BCE) when the Tower of Babel (see 2., above) and other, similar structures were likely built. Further, this is the precise area where the division of human language is said to have occurred, at least according to the historical record of the Bible (Genesis 11:7-9), which is supported by the best available evidence here and in 4. and 5., below.

The engravings found on what are alleged to be 60,000 year old egg shells or on “75,000-year-old engraved ochre chunks from the Blombos cave in South Africa,” which “have mostly been one-offs and difficult to tell apart from meaningless doodles,” are not “writing” in the sense which communication is conveyed through the images and markings found in the above-cited evidence (see Kate Ravilious, “Oldest ‘writing’ found on 60,000-year-old eggshells,” New Scientist 2750 [March 3, 2010]). Another form of “writing” or human expression may be in the form of cave drawings and from “semicircles, lines and zigzags also marked on the walls,” which some claim represent a “highly symbolic” “written ‘code’” believed to have been “familiar to all of the prehistoric tribes around France and possibly beyond,” approximately 40,000 to 10,000 years ago.—See Kate Ravilious, “The writing on the cave wall,” New Scientist 2748 (February 17, 2010).

I will consider these and other potential expressions of “humans” whom we might associate with our modern-to-6,000-year-old-or-so “humanity” further in a separate Blog on the subject of the use and the accuracy of various dating methods, including a review of newer technology for dating rock paintings, which is also carbon-based.

4.     Marking of "Time" and Season:

I believe for the good reasons that I provided in my prior Blog article on this subject that intentional intelligence within and outside of humankind can be seen in our use of “time,” in as much as our use of “time” points each one of us to the intelligence in life and in objects which exist all around us, life and objects which move and exist in predictably reliable ways and which we accept and which show us (by our measure) our own existence in relation to these other objects and to other life forms. These objects which exist and which we accept and which we routinely use in our measurement (our “time”) of events, actions, or even our thoughts include the rotation and the axis of the earth, our location on it relative to others who also live on it, as well as the earth’s orbit and its position relative to the moon, to the sun, and even to other stars.

When it comes to humankind’s use of “time,” or our measurement of our existence or that of other life forms, objects, or to our measurement of anything involving our earth, to our location on it relative to others, or concerning our evaluation of the earth’s orbit and position relative to the moon, to the sun, and even to other stars, the best available reasons from our history indicate that we have only kept “time” in these ways since between as late as 5,000 or as early as 7,000 years ago.

For example, the Goseck Circle is presently dated to between 5000 and 4600 BC. Yet, it is considered to be “the earliest sun observatory currently known in the world,” measuring “the heavens far earlier and more accurately than historians have thought.” After this, we find other similar objects being used by humans for measuring or marking time and season, such as the Nebra Disk, which was found 25 kilometers (about 15.5 miles) away from the Goseck Circle, and which is believed to be “the oldest concrete representation of the cosmos” (“Archaeologists Unearth German Stonehenge,” August 8, 2003). Dated to around 2600 BCE (2,400 years younger than the Goseck Circle), the Nebra Sky Disk was found near Goseck and it appears to have an image of very similar if not the same astronomical positions that are believed to exist as part of the Goseck Circle. Therefore, the Goseck Circle and the Nebra Sky Disk likely mark an event of historical significance.

Note what is said in one of the best published understandings and conclusions concerning the Nebra Sky Disk that I have seen to date:

Our revised interpretation of the Nebra Sky Disk concludes that the Nebra Sky Disk records the solar eclipse of April 16, 1699 BC for posterity. That solar eclipse took place next to the Pleiades at sunrise near the point of the Vernal Equinox, together with a near conjunction of the planets Mercury, Mars and Venus as “bridesmaids” for the “wedding” of the Sun and the Moon - a total solar eclipse - a rare and spectacular event for the ancients. This interpretation allows not only for a partial explanation of the Nebra Sky Disk but in fact explains all of the elements found on the disk in an integrated astronomical context which abides by the rules of the burden of proof. This interpretation fulfills the requirements of the preponderance of the evidence. The prevailing balance of probabilities is clearly in favor of our interpretation as opposed to the partial interpretation which has thus far been advanced [Andis Kaulins, “The Sky Disk of Nebra: Evidence and Interpretation,” page 13].

The dates for both the Goseck Circle and the Nebra Sky Disk are also consistent with the date ranges for other types of cosmic representations intelligently designed and built by humans. For example, the dates for the building of the three Egyptian pyramids of Khufu (also called the Pyramid of Cheops and the Great Pyramid of Giza), Khafra, and Menkaura are not older than 3000 to 2500 BCE. Yet, together these three pyramids represented the constellation known as the Belt of Orion. The Khufu/Giza Pyramid has to this day defied the best of human engineers to satisfactorily account for how it was even built (compare this overview article from the Great Pyramid of Giza Research Association).

The Goseck Circle, the Nebra Sky Disk, and the Giza Pyramid and other pyramids of Egypt represent incredible human understanding of cosmic objects and of their position relative to the earth and to each other in ways which are not only consistent with our modern human understanding and use of many of these same objects, but in many ways the earlier human uses comparatively exceed or go beyond what humans today can admittedly accomplish! Yet, before the earliest date of these three (the Goseck Circle: around 5000 BCE), there is nothing comparable which would suggest the existence of humans in our modern image, that is, humans who could mark “time” and season by means of the position of the earth, or by the location of the people then on it, and in relation to the sun, to the moon, and to the stars.

The use of structures (the pyramids and the Goseck Circle) to mark or to indicate time, season, or which depict or indicate solar or other cosmological significance, is consistent also with the dates for humankind’s earliest buildings, towers, and civilizations, as noted in 2., above. Further, as noted in my prior article in this series, human use of "time" is consistent with the biblical book of Genesis, which accurately records the intent behind our use of the sun, the moon, and the stars (with my underlining):

Genesis 1:14-15, New Revised Standard Version (1989):

And [Jah] God said, “Let there be lights in the dome of the sky to separate the day from the night; and let them be for signs and for seasons and for days and years, and let them be lights in the dome of the sky to give light upon the earth.” And it was so.

5.     The Division of Human Language:

The fifth good reason I will here present for the age of that which we define today as “human/mankind,” as opposed to any other, similar but more primitive types of creatures (or concurrently existing creatures, such as Neanderthal or those whom the Bible refers to as “Nephilim” [Genesis 6:4]), will also take us into the expressed subject of this article. That is, to show how the division of human language indicates an intentional, intelligent involvement by some living thing or person, but not solely due to any previously living man or woman, for we are the subjects of what I believe for good reasons to be an intentional act of non-human intelligence which divided our human language.

This is also around the time (between 3500 and 2400) when the Tower of Babel may have been built (see 2., above), which is also where the division of languages is said to have occurred and, more importantly, why it is believed to have occurred, which will be considered (but not merely accepted without testing) according to the following biblical account (with my underlining):

Genesis 11:1-8, New Living Translation:

At one time the whole world spoke a single language and used the same words. As the people migrated eastward, they found a plain in the land of Babylonia and settled there. They began to talk about construction projects. “Come,” they said, “let’s make great piles of burnt brick and collect natural asphalt to use as mortar. Let’s build a great city with a tower that reaches to the skies—a monument to our greatness! This will bring us together and keep us from scattering all over the world.”

But [Jah] came down to see the city and the tower the people were building. “Look!” [Jah] said. “If they can accomplish this when they have just begun to take advantage of their common language and political unity, just think of what they will do later. Nothing will be impossible for them!  Come, let’s go down and give them different languages. Then they won’t be able to understand each other.” In that way, [Jah] scattered them all over the earth; and that ended the building of the city.  That is why the city was called Babel, because it was there that [Jah] confused the people by giving them many languages, thus scattering them across the earth.

The division of human language is not merely a dialectical one, or due solely to differing accents within one language which we all share. In our history and in our present human societies and cultures, there are a myriad of different human languages. If the best available evidence today suggests that humankind seeks to break down communication barriers with each other, and to unite in furthering our knowledge and our understanding, then why did we ever develop entirely different, separate language systems dividing people, nation, and tribe by our “tongue,” or by our language, in the first place?

There are, therefore, good reasons to accept the timing and the actual events described in Genesis Chapter 11, and also for accepting the reasons given therein for why human language was intentionally divided, namely:

• The division of our language (as per 3., above) is traceable to the same time frame wherein we find evidence for what humans would today also consider intentionally intelligent “metallurgy,” or metal working (4500 to 2250 for the dating of tools potentially used by the early Chinese Hongshan culture [see 1., above], or to possibly as late as the 20th or even late 18th or early 17th centuries BCE for other metal tools).

• The division of human language is also consistent with what we would for good reasons consider to be the dates for the first human buildings and associated civilizations (namely, 3809 to 2853 BCE for the Egyptian pyramids, or possibly as early as 8,000 years old according to some recent findings [see 2., above]).

• The best available evidence for the division of human language comes from our dating of human writing (from 3500 to 2400 BCE according to Sumerian tomb writing and early cuneiform tablets [see 3., above]).

• All three of the above are consistent with the earliest dates for our use of the sun, the moon, the stars and the earth, and of our position on the earth, that is, for measuring or for marking our “time” and our seasons (that is, from 5000 to 2600 BCE, based on dates for the Goseck Circle and the Nebra Sky Disk, respectively [see 4., above]).

Therefore, it is clear from the best available evidence from our human history, which includes our actual separation into different people, distinguishable by race, nationality, and tribe, that  each group retained a highly effective, intentional intelligence capable of using a particular language system complete with words and with understandings of objects including buildings and civilizations and which language, in fact, defined each civilization and its people’s culture. Since then, humans continue to do the same things, also using language as a means of uniting and dividing people. 

Related to the significance of the development of human language Professor Stephen Hawking writes the following from the perspective of the biological (that is, non-intentionally-intelligent) evolution of life:

The process of biological evolution was very slow at first. It took two and a half billion years, to evolve from the earliest cells to multi-cell animals, and another billion years to evolve through fish and reptiles, to mammals. But then evolution seemed to have speeded up. ... with the human race, evolution reached a critical stage, comparable in importance with the development of DNA. This was the development of language, and particularly written language. It meant that information can be passed on, from generation to generation, other than genetically, through DNA. There has been no detectable change in human DNA, brought about by biological evolution, in the ten thousand years of recorded history. But the amount of knowledge handed on from generation to generation has grown enormously [Hawking, “Life in the Universe” (underlining added)].

Now consider what may have occurred, that is, if after seeing what we have seen or what we see and knowing what we have good reasons to believe about humanity today, the “good” and the “bad,” in particular, the really bad or worst of what we can do or have done, though we may have survived if we had always kept “one language and one speech” (compare Genesis 11:1), that is unlikely. It is even less likely that early humans like us would have been able to or would have committed themselves to diversifying their shared language on their own, so fast, with similar if not equally expressive capacities though using entirely different language systems, which neither could understand when speaking to the other except for special learning or circumstance (such as the number of languages spoken in a given region when growing up as a child).

When it comes to the subject of this Blog, namely, language(s), or what the division of human language may constitute as far as a good reason indicative of intentional intelligence in non-human (but human-involved) life, just think how “enormously” the “amount of knowledge handed on” would have been had it not been for what for what appears to have been done intentionally by an intelligent, living, non-human, but for good reasons, namely, divide human language in order to:

1) Protect humanity from the consequences of our own self-glorification at an early age when it is unlikely (as I am sure Professor Hawking would agree) we would have been able “to reduce or eliminate the risk of self-destruction” (Hawking, “Life in the Universe”), even if we spoke only one “language” and used the same words; and

2) ‘Scatter’ humankind across the surface of the earth, exactly as we see happening throughout our history and since the time when mankind’s language was first divided several thousand years ago, and which remains divided even to this day.—Compare Genesis 1:28.

Professor Hawking’s concerns about our human potential are not at all unfounded. Indeed, while in my next Blog article on in this series I intend to show that Hawking’s non-biological, evolutionary view of the origin of life is not well-founded, Hawking appears right to me when he speaks about how “with the exponential rate of growth of knowledge that we have had in the last three hundred years,” impulses humans had thousands of years ago could now “destroy the entire human race, and much of the rest of life on Earth” (Hawking, “Life in the Universe”). Of course, that depends a good deal if not entirely on your view of the origin of life.

Thankfully, it appears that for good reasons we were intentionally diverted away from our own self-destruction, and then ‘scattered across the earth’ into peoples, nations, and tribes, separated by our “tongues,” so that only rather recently, or perhaps not even yet, have we truly ‘filled the earth’ as was also the expressed intent of the biblical God, “Jah,” even as is our use of the earth and of the heavenly objects for keeping “time,” and the separation of our human language.—Genesis 1:28; 9:1; 11:1-9; compare Revelation 7:9; 21:24, 26.

[*AUTHOR'S NOTE: On Monday, May 3, 2010, I removed "biological, evolutionary view of life" from the second-to-last paragraph in this article and in its place I am using "non-biological, evolutionary view of the origin of life." By this I intend to correct and to make clearer that I believe Hawking's (and others') view of life ultimately involves acceptance of something other than "life" or of what or of who is already alive as the origin of life itself. I believe such a "non-biological" view of life's origin is not only unscientific (because it does not build from even one single, observable, repeatable example) but it also contradicts what science otherwise, everywhere, and always to this day has shown us: Life only comes from something or from someone already alive.]

Day Texts from the Bible - Twitter

Take a look at the right-hand side of this Blog, which shows updates from our Twitter account. 

In addition to using Twitter for various updates for recent or for important information, I have been using Twitter to send out "Day Texts," or translations from the Bible based on my nearly twenty-five years of experience in researching, evaluating, and handling biblical texts. 

I make no special claims for my translations, or for myself. As always, what I offer is what I consider to be based on the best available reasons. For these Day Text translations, I have put forth what I consider an accurate expression of each text according to each document's idiom and context, historically and textually. I offer you what I consider the best meaning of the text according to my fairly casual reading each morning, or in researching a particular text.